Developments
of the technology bring us certain tranquility as long as we understand how to
manipulate them within a great understanding. Knowledge may be taught but the
full comprehension may not. The real concern begins with this insight. Although
scientific knowledge can simply be converted into a technological system for
our lives, without even noticing, its momentum may change the world up to a
point of no return. This paper depicts the social complexity of
modern-day prosthetic devices while mentioning future advancements of the prosthetic
The history of the artificial limbs is broader than we expect.
Prosthetics is created by the early Egyptians due to their curiosity to the field
of artificial limbs. (Norton,2007) Their times' prosthetics are used for the
cosmetic appearance and psycho-spiritual sense of wholeness. In the dark ages,
prosthetics went through little advancements and its usage was mostly to cover
the deformity of the body rather than an effective functionality. (Thurston,
2007) Through the time of the 1500s, German mercenary Gotz von Berlich-ingen,
who has the certain technologically inclined prosthetic hand that can perform
some operations such as grasping is considered as the person who has first
effective prosthetic limb. (Thurston, 2007)
In the mid to the late 1500s, French army surgeon Ambrosie Pare was the
great intellectual of the modern amputation surgery and prosthetic who
introduced the modern medicine of the amputation to the world. In modern times
though, custom molded devices, microprocessors, computer chips, and robots are
assembled together as prosthetic devices to act as natural limbs, rather than
simple functionality or a more pleasant appearance. ( Ott, Serlin, Mihm, 2002)
The future of the prosthetic
technology may merge the human body and machine elements to the point of
singularity. Although the transformation of both separate worlds requires
deliberate process and the topic is a bit controversial, there are still
continuing advancements in this field. The research at M.I.T has started the
age of advanced prosthetics, which is much more efficient and effective than
the human body. According to M.I.T research, prosthetic limbs can excel in the
nature of the human body. Research suggests that one day the even people who do
not have diseases that result in amputation still want advanced prosthetics to
suppress the vulnerability of the human body. (Hugh Herr, 2014)
These technologies consist of exploitations
principles of biological movements and designs that mimic the structure of a human
skeleton. The utmost aim is to produce lifelike artificial appendages in
harmony with human nature.
Every part of
the body has different science behind it to replace with prosthetic limbs, in
order to understand the human body’s behavior, there is a various number of
experiments that resulted in to acquire the movement of each functioning part
of the human body. For instance, the experiments determine the horizontal
ground reaction forces mimic the behavior of the human body. (Herr, H.,
Whiteley, G. P, 2003) (Check Appendix A figure 1, 2) The scientific approach
related to the actual human arm can be observed with qualitative and
quantitative modeling according to the company. (Ö. Arslan, personal
communication, April 22, 2019) Each type of modeling methods provides us to
gather real data to be interpreted. After the first principles of mechanical
behaviors of the artificial limbs, their control is performed with “Brain
Machine Interfaces” (BMIs). The interface is directly connected to the cortical
neurons to control the robot arm or any other robotic system. (Lebedev, M. A.,
& Nicolelis, 2006) What makes this technology futuristic is the ability to
interpret neuronal signals specifically as the motor commands. These neuronal
signals that are aligned with the motor commands can be recalibrated in a
system which simulates humanly behaviors or unconscious physical behaviors of
the human mind. For instance, semi-autonomous build in logic when reaching to
grasp a glass is fundamental for each human behavior. Therefore, our hand
semi-autonomically changes its pre-shape in conformity with the geometrical
shape of the object. (D. P. McMullen, 2014) The future of the prosthetic
devices is the combination of machine learning(BMIs), modern day prosthetics
and neuroscience(BMIs). (Schultz, A. E., & Kuiken, T. A. 2011) Although
there are still few inadequate levels of technologies related to the
human-machine integration, the initial steps are being proceeded in Bilkent
University’s borders by “Biyomedtek”. (Ö. Arslan, personal communication, April
22, 2019)
While
modern prosthetic devices have been used since the outset of the 21st Century,
the company has been working on a special project for a long time ago. The
purpose of their approach is to use the energy burst of the walking and extract
the benefits of the cyclic motion to build self-powered modern prosthetic
artificial leg. The reason why they started to pursue this project is to reduce
the total weight of the prosthetic leg and its absence of energy requirement.
(Bockman, C. R. 2009) Furthermore, energy-storing prosthetic feet working
principle includes some combination of unique materials and mechanisms. It
contains composite materials such as “carbon fiber reinforced leaf springs” to
revert and store the energy of the walking. (Ö. Arslan, personal communication,
April 22, 2019)
Energy-storing
prosthetic feet will revolutionize the prosthetic technology and will be
accessible to all societies worldwide due to their low cost and ease of
productability. This design approach could solve the on-going problems that are
related to the accessibility in the near future due to its simple, affordable
solution to the energy and material problem around the world. The prosthetics
technology advances in order to solve the human vulnerability against nature,
however, it generates problems along with its solutions. The technology that
gives rise to the prosthetics should follow the rules of safe technology by
considering the repercussions of social complexity.
safe technology should
follow the terms of responsible innovation to avoid the misperception of
knowledge. Responsible research and innovation is a transparent, interactive
process by which societal actors and innovators become mutually responsive to
each other with a view to the (ethical) acceptability, sustainability and
societal desirability of the innovation process and its marketable products.”
(Von Schomberg, 2013) The technology of prosthetics mostly controlled by the
engineers who create them and play roles in decision-making but as long as the
control is centralized by certain groups (engineers), technological
developments cannot purely expect the possible future defects of outcomes. Many
views have supported the connection between society and stakeholders or people
who have explicit ability to change the technology, which suits to
technological momentum, social constructivism, and biopolitics theories. Safe
technology should follow these perspectives regarding the fact that biopolitics
is the consequence of technological momentum and social constructivism.
Prosthetics have been shaped
by society for centuries and will become a force that shapes society. With the
advent of prosthetics technology, the development of technology begins with the
norms of social constructivism by a certain group of people, which means that
the initial effects arise from the society itself. At this point the ultimate
question to be asked is; what if the social groups shaping technology are
clearly immoral? Effects of society in innovations have started with social
movements and then, it has continued with constructive technology which creates
the first elements of technological momentum theory over time.
On the other hand, the results that are originated from technological momentum theory have contributed to the point where biopolitics approach becomes apparent day-by-day due to the increasing amount of power in the prosthetics technology. Then, the fundamental question becomes; how our understanding of “the body” changes as the momentum of the development of prosthetics increases. This question changes the political paradigms that are the attainment of permissions to the power dynamics for overriding the ability self-control of the human body and puts society under constant surveillance. (Pugliese, J., 2012) Therefore, intervention arises and alters how power is conducted in the long-term. To be able to investigate biopolitics following related question should be asked; how we can redefine the network in terms of the ability to intervene directly to “the body”, how may this consequence changes the power dynamics for populations and what alternative solutions might be implemented to overcome the alteration of power dynamics for populations. From the 1970s the effects of social constructivism started to be observed in society more often. (Kukla, A., 2013) Perhaps, the most important idea of social constructivism is that technology and science are not autonomous realms. The point is that the system or network is not only technologically but socially in harmony. Since the network is social, it is subject to conflict and is inherently unstable. (Bijker, W. E., Hughes, T. P., & Pinch, T. J. 1989) A similar approach can be observed at the beginning of prosthetics technology. The process of safe technology though should follow the terms of stable advancements within the system due to the requirement of the transparency. When the social dynamics constantly changing through the developments of the prosthetics, technology is divided into certain areas which might have created an imperfect basement for prosthetics advancement. Moreover, to compensate the instability in the prosthetics technology, social constructivism creates “large-scale social structures”, which leads to reduce the defects of unsafe technology that originated from the social constructivism at the first place. (Bijker, W. E., Hughes, T. P., & Pinch, T. J. 1989) However, ironically, it will only add more instability to the progress of prosthetics technology due to its inadequacy of transparency at the beginning. These transparency issues within the system may cause ethical dilemmas in the future from certain perspectives. For many distinct groups in society, modern day prosthetics may become counter-intuitive to the notion of equality. These ethical equality issues can be illustrated with an example between two types of social groups; patients who have severe disease that causes amputation and normal people who simply want to extinguish the vulnerability of the human body. Ethical dilemmas arise when considering the fact that people who need amputation has to be provided the prosthetics but that type of aid is not provided for the people with no diseases that require amputation. (Survey, 21 April 2019)(Check appendix B figure 3) This kind of favoritism between two distinct groups of society may lead to form discrimination because of initial instability. The other type of discrimination can be observed via an example too. The physical properties of ethnicity may not be suitable to implement a prosthetic device to the person due to the initial group does not consider all aspects of the requirements of all ethnicities around the world. (Von Schomberg, R., 2013) This is also originated from the social constructivism theory and its flaws. This should be perfected with interactive approaches regarding the fact that technology should not discriminate any ethnicities. The better way to impose prosthetics as a safe technology should contain easy accessibility for all kinds of social groups and also cover every ethnicities’ physical properties. Other than these specific examples, biomedical engineers must respect the following rules; human dignity and integrity, freedom and responsibility, solidarity and social justice, as well as concepts of risk, consent, autonomy, and privacy. These rules are directly related to the group who starts the initial groundwork. (Monzon, J. E., 1999) However, while attempting to sustain the stability of the technological system, its momentum begins to change how technology works and these iterative approaches will attain certain autonomy to the technological system later on. Some people discuss that connecting prosthetics technology with human-race can be considered as humans that are not humans. (Warwick, K., 2003) On the other hand, it could be understood that human-race construct a desperate way to revolt against the cruelty of nature. (Freud, S., & Strachey, J. E., 1964) Either from the general point of view to turning human-race into the cyborg is necessity or not, it is still a concern because of what might be the consequences of such a technological system. Once the feeling of desperation against nature begins, and the feeling of the necessity of improvement is vaccinated to the social norms, ethics cannot stop its fierce momentum. Therefore, it is not wrong to admit the instability issues are the beginning of it. An interactive approach could solve the trivial flaws of the technology.However, the iterations will alter power dynamics and attain so much self-power to the system. In order to outweigh the inevitable consequences of cyborg technology.
Although cyborg technology can be illustrated as “safe” technology due to its sustainability and social demand approaches, there is still one main concern related to its ethical complexity. ( Warwick, L., 2003) It is true that the difference between the cyborgs and normal humans is more than we handle in a nutshell. Cyborg’s capabilities excel humans in many areas such as memory, processing, and mathematical capabilities. (Herr, H., Whiteley, G. P., & Childress, D., 2003) If there will be two very distinct races, oppressors and oppressed ones in the social hierarchy will be more common in the society. The upper group of “people” crushes the lower group because of the accessibility issues. (Panagakos, A. N., & Horst, H. A., 2006) Moreover, the general concept of the human body would be altered and become obsolete. The oppressor class regime becomes not only the cyborgs but the authorities itself, who enable that technology at the society such as engineers or stakeholders. They could have the ability to control every “human” without their own will. The political force should be divided into several countries just as the several puzzle pieces. The decentralization of the power could solve the further crisis of ambiguity of power dynamics, I believe. Furthermore, another solution is theoretically possible but technically improbable due to the instability of the system at the initial records. There are ethical rules which are called as “Cyborg ethics”. Cyborg ethics should have worked over at first but this cannot be possible because no one can work on nothing’s ethical aspects. Ethical aspects should have been considered before the technological momentum becomes a major force on society, not after. However, steps can be taken when every aspect of the possible outcomes are well-known. Furthermore, cyborgs would most probably is connected directly to a network. The leading question becomes; is it morally justifiable for cyborgs to give up their own individuality and become a neural network? What if they become malicious to the people who create them? Or what if they start to take control of the governments or individuals by vicious acts?
Although the inevitable progress still continues, these questions need to be resolved in order to pursue in safe technology.In conclusion, throughout history, human-race is in need of constant improvement to resists against the natural forces. Although prosthetics technology might be a solution for it. Its repercussions on social complexity may not be expected from the outset. Although humans are capable of foreseeing the events of near future, the instability within the social constructivism may transform to a point where it cannot be reversed because social constructivism builds a foundation of the prosthetic technology. Therefore, its momentum will be available to change the social norms without even realizing. These changes, then, reflect on power dynamics and also, reflect on how the perception of the human body is changed.